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Leadership and management theory looks beyond the traditional definitions if leadership and management, leadership is understood in the context of various variables such as skill levels and situational factors and management as a necessary component for increased efficiency and productivity. Leadership Theories: Leadership theories highlight the distinct characteristics that enable a leader to be successful versus unsuccessful. There are eight types of leadership theories: Contingency theories Trait theories Behavioural theories Relationship theories Power theories Situational theories Participative theories Transactional theories The most important theories of the eight are Great Man theories, Contingency theories, Behavioural theories, and Transactional theories. Great Man theories: The ability to be a good leader is something that you are born with and not something that can be learned through studying or practicing. The ability to be leader is inherited and not found in most people. Contingency theories: There are different leadership styles, which are appropriate for different settings. It cannot be assumed that leadership skills in one type of organisation does transfer to another type of organisation. There are four subcategories in this theory: Fiedler’s Contingency theory: There are three variables that are needed for the success of an organisation or group. These variables are group atmosphere, task structure and a leader’s position of power. The Normative Decision Model: Emphasises situational factors more than how leadership is carried Hersey & Blanchard’s situational theory: Suggests that no single leadership style is inherently better than another. Instead of relying on a fixed approach, leaders should adapt their techniques based on the abilities and maturity of their followers. Path-Goal Model: The productivity of followers which stems from motivation and satisfaction is based on the behaviour of the leader. Therefore the leader should change their behaviour accordingly to improve productivity. Behavioral theories: The success of a leader is based on the behaviours of the leader. Leaders can be made through the development of skills and becoming knowledgeable. The actions of the individual is more important than the physical, mental, or social characteristics in determining their success as leaders. Transactional theories: Effective leaders need to utilise systems and structures which are centered around rewards and punishment to motivate followers. Management theory: Management theories include the following: Behavioral assumption Bureaucracy Chaos theory Contingency theory Decision theory Operations management Prospect theory Scientific management Strategic management Systems approach Theory X and Theory Y

South Africa’s burden of disease consists of maternal, newborn and child health, HIV/AIDS and TB, non-communicable diseases, and interpersonal violence (South African Medical Research Council, 2022). Disability Adjusted Years, also called DALYs, is able to quantify the premature mortality and morbidity that these burdens of diseases cause in South Africa. DALYs means one lost year of "healthy" life. When DALYs for a population or burden of disease are added it puts into perspective the difference between the ideal standard for the health of the population, e.g. living to old age, without disease and disability, and the current health status of the population or affect that the burden of disease is having. Disability adjected years can be calculated with the following equation: DALY=YLL+YLD Where: DALY- Disability adjusted years. YLL- years of life lost YLD- years lived with disability. South Africa had HIV/AIDS, diarrheal disease, and interpersonal violence, as the top causes of Disability adjusted years in 2010. This illustrated the link between the burden of diseases and the decreased quality of life or life span of an individual. Globally there was a general trend of declining communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional causes for DALYs, while non-communicable disease and injuries have continued to increase. We can now look at each quadruple burden of disease individually.

There are four patterns among the exemplary people who succeed in position of influence. There was a strong positive correlation found between the individual being exemplary and excellent at all four patterns and being successful at influencing. These four capabilities can be acquired through hard work, that anyone who wants to have greater influence can learn. Context: These individuals are remarkably astute at reading the environment around them. As the saying goes, they knew their audience deeply. They were eager to learn about the people and settings in which they wated to have influence so that they could adapt themselves and their ideas accordingly. The unsuccessful leaders started by assuming that they already had an answer or idea that everyone else needed, but the successful leader started by first learning about the world that they wanted to have an impact in. To learn to read context well you need to cultivate curiosity, they put themselves in unfamiliar environments where they had to learn. To be influential with context start by learning about those who you want to influence. Their strengths, weaknesses, environments they are most productive in, etc. Breadth: This is when leaders have the capacity to see how all the pieces and parts of their organisations fit together. They knew that those they wanted to influence fit into a bigger story and that it is common for people in organisations to be fragmented from one another. Unsuccessful leaders ignore this fragmentation and target their influence exclusively on one group at the expense of others and sometimes made the division worse. But the successful leaders knew that they had to build coalition among those that were disconnected from each other. Breadth is learned by cultivating the ability to build bridges between people.   Choice: This is having the courage to make hard decisions even if it means disappointing people. It is being aware that sometimes you must focus people on just a few things for them to have lasting impact. The unsuccessful leaders focus more on pleasing people, so they said yes too often which led to confusion. The best leaders know when, who and how to include people in their decisions. Choice means narrowing down your focus on a few things so that you can do them with excellence. You learn how to make good choices by cultivating courage. Connection: Leaders who thrive are people that everyone wanted to be around. They were respected, had deep trusting relationship and they were genuinely perceived as wanting to help others succeed. The unsuccessful leaders focused on connections with those from whom they wanted something. Their relationships were more political than they were genuine. Successful leaders focused on developing relationships with those who relied on them. This is a capability that is learned through cultivating empathy. They genuinely wanted to see others succeed and asked for feedback on how they can improve in those relationships. Before listening to the TEDx Talk I understood being influential as having positive characteristics, such as a hard work ethic, which your colleagues could notice within you which they want in a good team member. Through them noticing these positive characteristics in you they would be more willing to cooperate and collaborate with you to ensure that project objectives are successfully met. After this TEDx Talk I realised that influence is a delicate balance between what people care about and understanding your team members and having good decision-making skills. Link to TEDx Talk by Ron Carucci, The Secret To Having Influence https://youtu.be/b1ODwwPd60s?si=vYRQxTJSXzhab3JV

At the beginning of the year volunteered for the Girton Fundraising Subcommittee and UNICEF WITS. Girton Fundraising Subcommittee required that I generate innovative ideas for fundraising, plan and carry out fundraising events and communicate with relevant stakeholders. While UNICEF WITS required that I attend and take part in projects which aim to advocate for communities and/or groups of people in need, with special emphasis on women and children. Some events that were held required that I respond flexibly. For example, there was an event that the Girton Fundraising Subcommittee was hosting and there was a need for people to come help and set up the event. There was another recycling campaign that was occurring which we struggled to get a recycling company that was willing to work with us. As I worked with the other volunteer members, I noticed that compartmentalisation of the work that needed to be done in a short amount of time was necessary. The group agreed and we divided to work together mor efficiently. Volunteering has made me more open-minded and shown me the importance of planning ahead, these are two key ways that the responding flexibly competency can be developed. For example, the UNICEF WITS hosted an event where volunteer could discuss and find solutions to problems that affect mothers and children in South Africa. For me to be able to partake in these discussions I had to be open to hearing the opinions and suggestions of other volunteers. Secondly, volunteering opportunities are often announced between three and two weeks before the event. For me to successfully partake in these events I had to endure that I was planning ahead for my schoolwork and other commitments that I may have in order for me to ensure that I can attend the volunteer opportunities. In conclusion I would say that volunteering has helped me develop responsive flexibility through learning to problem-solve, be open-minded and planning ahead.

Remaining calm is essential in being able to respond flexibly. I identified that my stress response was preventing me from being calm. As I was looking for resources to learn ways to combat the stress I cam across the World Health Organization, Doing What Matters in Times of Stress: An Illustrated Guide. Below is reflection of what I have learned from the Illustrated Guide. Stress is a normal part of life. However, stress becomes a problem when the thoughts and feelings we have hooks us and pulls us away from the values that we hold. In these moments it is important to focus, engage and pay attention better. When hooked by thoughts or feelings, you are “disengaged” or “distracted” and unfocused. And when we do things in a disengaged” or “distracted” and unfocused way, we often do them poorly, or are unable to enjoy the activity and feel dissatisfied. So, if you can learn to be more engaged, and focus better, then you will handle stress and you will be able to do important things much better. To become more focused, engaged and pay attention better practice breathing exercises, stretch, notice the things you can see, hear, taste, smell and touch, and press your feet into the ground.   In moments of stress after we have grounded ourselves, through the exercises named above, we should begin unhooking from the stressful thoughts and feeling. This is done by noticing the stressful feelings or thoughts and naming it. Thereafter you should refocus, through the aforementioned exercises, on the task that you are doing in the present. Next it is important to act in a way that is aligned with your values. Acting in a way that aligns with my values allows me to adapt to changing circumstances, find creative solutions, and maintain a positive attitude. The link to the World Health Organization, Doing What Matters in Times of Stress: An Illustrated Guide. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/331901/9789240003910-eng.pdf?sequence=1

One of the seven ways to develop the responding flexibly competency is having an optimistic attitude. I did not really understand what this meant so I decided to watch a TEDx talk by Bert Jacobs. This talk was really insightful for me, my findings are summarised below: Makes you Solution-Oriented: Make it a daily habit to acknowledge the good that happens in your life. If you develop this habit, you can better focus your resources on what’s working, and you build on that. Optimism versus pessimism allows us to be solution oriented. Through this I can become someone who is resilient and able to bring stability to unexpected situations. Acknowledge the opportunity I have to develop the Responding flexibly competency: Have a “get to” attitude, you get to participate in working in a team environment where you can identify weaknesses you possess and learn many skills. Practice gratitude for being offered the opportunity to develop the capability of undertaking short-term goals, swiftly and with composure to solve unforeseen problems or tasks effectively. Make things easier for people to do: There is an initiative called takers may eat well, but givers sleep well that Bert Jacobs’ company started. This initiative helped him understand that if you want to help people do good you have to make it simple. There were many times that team members I work on projects with were not able to meet deadlines that were set. My reaction would be to stress over them not doing their work and thereafter either setting a new date for their work to be submitted or taking of the work myself. I have come to the realisation that a better approach would be to walk people through their part of assignment to ensure that they understand how to approach and complete the work they have been assigned.   The link to  the TEDx talk by Bert Jacobs: https://youtu.be/yYGNWIT4eqA?si=CLN0hvKHOcBcg2hl

This website article How Self-Confident Are You? By the Mind Tools Content Team caught my attention because of its unique approach to building self-confidence. This article suggests that self-efficiency is a building block in self-confidence. The article begins with explaining how to build confidence. It begins by stipulating that confident people can seem innately outgoing, self-assured, and assertive, but that is not always the case. Confidence can be developed through practice. These are 8 steps to help in this process: Let go of imposter syndrome- many of us feel like frauds from time to time that we will be found out overcome this by improving your self-awareness, understand where your strengths lie and take comfort in the fact that you are not alone. Stop being a perfectionist- Some time good enough is fine, don’t allow the idea something being perfect stop you from doing something that is good. Learn when it is time to let go and move on to the nest task. Play to your strengths- share what you are talented at and your confidence will flourish. Reflect on your successes- take stock of your achievements and keep note of them, it very easy to forget your successes when you are feeling down so make certain that you have written them down somewhere for encouragement when you need it. Do something scary- stepping out of your comfort zone can reveal skills that you were unaware of. The more that you do this the easier it will become and the more confident you will become. Practice deep breathing- taking a deep breath when you are under pressure will help you slow the stress response that you are experiencing and relax you. Put things into perspective- if the situation begins to feel overwhelming. Put it into context. Be grateful for what you have and focus on what you can do to move on with courage and conviction.  Looking at stressful situations with hindsight can help you identify your emotions and help you deal with a similar stressful situation in the future. Pretend- even if you don’t feel confident on the inside projecting an air of confidence will inspire others to trust in your abilities. Try adopting a power stance for two minutes and feel the confidence radiate. These steps resonated with me the most compared to the advices that I encountered in Artifact 1 and 2. This is because I was able to recognise weaknesses the MBTI personality test suggested I could have as a person with a INFJ personality. Specifically weaknesses are being a perfectionist [2]. Steps [1], [3], [5], [7], and [8] resonated very deeply with the in securities that I have and enabled me to understand how much my insecurities are holding me back. Self-efficacy connection to self-confidence: Confidence is when you believe that you can achieve goals or tasks you set out to do. Self-efficacy is when you believe that you can achieve a specific goal or task you set out to do. When an individual has the belief that they are highly self-efficient at a task they are doing it impacts their thoughts and actions and behave in a manner which enables them to succeed. When someone has high self-efficacy, they tend to: Develop a deeper interest in the activities they participate in. Form a stronger commitment to their interests and activities. Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments. Building self-confidence: This website article taught me that self-confidence can be improved through believing in yourself and your abilities. I learned a theory called Bandura's theory of self-efficacy to improve your you perception of your abilities. There are four tenets to this theory: Mastery experiences – things you have succeeded at in the past. Vicarious experiences – seeing people who are similar to you succeed. Social persuasion – hearing from others that you're capable. Emotional status – staying positive, and managing stress. I hope that as I apply these steps in my I will begin to grow my self-confidence in my abilities. The link to thsi website article: How Self-Confident Are You? Improving Self-Confidence by Building Self-Efficacy by the Mind Tools Content Team. https://www.mindtools.com/ahqz3nl/how-self-confident-are-you

After understanding how to recognise my talents and value that I bring to an organisation from completing the Build confidence with self-promotion GOOGLE course . I noticed that I still need help in understanding how to carry myself in a manner that communicates self-confidence to others. To begin understanding I watched the TEDx talk by Dr. Ivan Joseph called The skill of self confidence. Self-confidence is an important skill because without it you lose sight or belief in yourself, you are done for. Dr. Ivan Joseph defines self-confidence to be the ability or the belief to believe in yourself to accomplish any task, no matter the odds or the difficulty, no matter the adversity. The belief that you can accomplish it, self-confidence. Dr. Ivan Joseph believes that self-confidence is a skill that can be trained, the ways he believes this is possible is as follows: Repetition, repetition, repetition - The problem is that we expect to be self-confident, but we can’t be self-confident unless the skill or the task we are doing is not novel to us. We want to be in a situation where we are under pressure during practice so that when we are doing the task or skill, we are confident.  The ability to practice something over and over again correlates to a decrease in the amount of nervousness or lack of self-confidence in one’s own ability.  Coupled with this habit of repetition we should also be persistent through failure that may happen as we work to build our self-confidence. Self-talk - This is the voice that plays in your head. If there is negative self-talk in our heads it negatively impacts our actions and vice versa if there is positive self-talk in our heads it positively impacts our actions. Acknowledge positive behaviour - remind yourself of the times that you did a task or skill correctly right and then recognise that although you’ve made a mistake you are capable of correcting and improving your actions. This preserves your self-confidence because you are not being critical in a demeaning manner, which suggest that you are incapable, but in a way where you acknowledge that you are capable of doing what you set out to do. Choose how to interpret feedback - Interpret feedback as opportunities for improvement. After this TEDx talk I was able to recognise that mindset plays a role in self-confidence. That even if I was able to recognise my talents, skills and past achievements that if I don't move past the negative mindset that I hold then I will not be able to grow self-confidence. This TEDx talk put into perspective lesson three of the GOOGLE course, specifically bullet points 3-5. I will work on my self-confidence by working on my mindset, following the four steps listed above. Link to TEDx Talk: The skill of self confidence | Dr. Ivan Joseph | TEDxRyersonU https://youtu.be/w-HYZv6HzAs?si=WuLYoq3PqvqJrrNR

When you are confident you are able to acknowledge what you are talented at doing, the value you bring to an organisation and carry yourself in a manner that communicates this to others. Sometimes the lack of confidence is from not being able to recognise your talents, skills and past achievements. With this in mind, I discovered the Build confidence with self-promotion GOOGLE course. This course teaches the tools need to recognise your talents, skills and past achievements and the ability to communicate it to others. As a consequence of this there is an increase in confidence. First lesson: Introduction to self-promotion What is self-promotion? Self-promotion is about educating the relevant people about skills and value that you can bring to the organisation. So that people can make the best possible choice in terms of recruiting you and knowing that you are the best person for the job. Self-promotion is a process where you look at what you are doing daily, analysing the skill you have, what you do, and using them to further yourself. Self-promotion is essential to succeed in careers. Why is self-promotion hard? There is a misconception around it that it is bragging. This can stem from upbringings or cultural backgrounds which shun speaking about one’s achievements. Therefore, self-promotion brings up feelings of disgust for some people. But there is a solution, there is scientific evidence to show that as soon as people assign the feeling to something ese apart from the act of self-promotion, they are much better at doing it.  Why is self-promotion important? A very minuscule amount of people who apply for job get the opportunity to have an interview. Consequently, if you put yourself in the context of applying for job with people who are as competent and capable as you, you need to have that added extra that makes you stand out. This is where self-promotion comes in. Most jobs are ascertained through networking and the ability to talk confidently about your skills to a group of people who you are networking with. There is evidence that being able to self-promote not only is more likely to secure you the job, but it sin more likely to secure you the job that you really thrive at. The more accurate that you are able to be about your talents, qualities and past achievements the more able the person you are interacting with is to make the right decision about you.   Check your knowledge: Kira wants to master the art of self-promotion so she can use it more in work, and with her family and friends. It's proving difficult though, as she's struggling to get over some of the misconceptions she's heard about it. Can you help her out? Question 3: Answer is incorrect. Self-promotion is not about being forceful. Second lesson: Explore what makes you stand out. Take a few minutes and write down what makes you remarkable. 1.      I am remarkable because since primary school I have been able to consistently perform well in academics. 2.      I am remarkable because I enjoy taking initiative in group projects and achieving goals for the project that the team has set. 3.      I am remarkable because I am resilient and have an unfaltering belief in my ability to reach the goals I have set for myself. Check your knowledge: Self-promotion has nothing to do with boasting, bragging or being pushy. It's about recognising your personal achievements and what makes you remarkable. Just like in the video you watched; what qualities make you remarkable? Select as many as you like. Third Lesson: How to practice self-promotion. How can you become better at self-promoting? 1.      Write out your accomplishment list: Write down what makes you remarkable. Perhaps you won an award for sports or perhaps you were involved in fundraising for your community. Write them down it makes it easier for you to recall how successful you have been. 2.      Email your friends and colleagues: Ask them when was the last time that I did something that helped you? And what was it? Then ask: What are three things that you really value about me? 3.      Create your confidence backpack: One way to increase your confidence around self-promotion is to practice talking passionately about your skills, your talents, and your past achievements. A classic skill or classic technique for increasing our confidence is something called confidence backpack. Thinking about all the things you have done that you are really proud of, all of your achievements, imagine that situation and put it in that mental backpack. Then in situations where you are nervous or concerned remember all those time that you were able to do it before and believe that you will be able to do it again. 4.      Try power posing: With your feet firmly on the floor and your hands on your hips. It changes your physiology and helps you to be more confident so you can take on the world. This is helpful for stressful situations like interviews. 5.      Self-promotion is something that you need to exercise like a muscle. To be able to talk about your skills, your strengths, your achievements, your accomplishments, in a way that feels right for you. And when you do that, eventually with time, you will own it and you’ll be proud to tell the world what you’re great at. Check your knowledge: Dave's been out of work for a while. He's currently job hunting and just secured an interview where he'll need to give a short presentation on his past achievements. What self-promotion tips would you give Dave to help him nail it? End of GOOGLE course quiz: Build confidence with self-promotion Before completing this course I was unsure where to begin with developing competency five. After completing this course about self-promotion, I am capable of acknowledging what I am talented at doing, the value I bring to an organisation and carry myself in a manner that communicates this to others. The tools I learned are something I have to continuously work on for it to be fully realised in my life. Link to Google Course: Build confidence with self-promotion https://skillshop.exceedlms.com/student/collection/656748/path/1172351

The WHO Building Blocks of Health Systems are Service Delivery, Human Resources for health, Health information systems, Access to essential medicines, Health Financing, and Leadership and governance (World Health Organization, 2010). Service delivery comprises of the outputs of the resources that are invested into the heath system to ensure that is can work well, these resources include human resources, health financing, essential medicines, health information system, and leadership and governance (Ferrinho et al., 2023). Theoretically if there is an increase in the resources invested into the heath system, in the context of adequately implemented policies and strategies by leadership and governance, the health system should offer high-quality services and increased equitable access. The service delivery building block measures the quality and the access to healthcare services that communities have (Ferrinho et al., 2023). Human resources for health are the people responsible for delivering responsive, effective and equitable healthcare services to patients with the resources are available to them (Manyazewal, 2017). These resources are the health information system medicines, financing, good leadership and infrastructure. According to Manyazewal (2017) Health information systems are responsible for “the production, analysis, dissemination and use of reliable and timely information on health determinants, health system performance and health status.”  Access to essential medicines, according to Ferrinho et al. (2023), “refers to equitable access to essential pharmaceutical products, vaccines and technologies of assured quality, safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness, and their scientifically sound and cost-effective use.”  These building blocks reveal the standard health systems should aim for these components in order to be high-quality and ensure equitable access. Health Financing is a building block focused on the money that is needed to operate a high-quality and adequate health system. Sufficient financing is need for the purchase of essential medication, maintenance, and development of infrastructure, and to provide financial incentive to the health workforce and leadership and governance to maintain the health system (Ferrinho et al., 2023). In my reflection from HSS 1 I explain that Health finances are raised by health financing systems. A good health financing system raises adequate funds for health, that ensure people can use the needed services and are protected from financial catastrophe or impoverishment associated with having to pay for them. The health financing system has three functions collecting money, pooling money, and providing services. Leadership and governance comprises of setting up policies and strategies and ensuring effective implementation and management of policies and strategies. It entails partnering with various stakeholders, supervision, regular evaluation of the health system, and accountability (Ferrinho et al., 2023). Ferrinho et al. (2023) further describes leadership and governance as “Accountability is an intrinsic aspect of governance that concerns the management of relationships between various stakeholders, including individuals, households, communities, professional organizations, firms, governments, nongovernmental organizations, private firms, and other entities that have the responsibility to finance, monitor, deliver or use health services.” There are two reasons that I believe being knowledgeable of the WHO Building Blocks of Health is relevant to my learning: Provides the vocabulary to identify and communicate health system issues: The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a framework that describes health systems in terms of six core components or “building blocks.” These building blocks provide a common vocabulary to identify and communicate health system issues. This is advantageous when problem-solving issues that are identified in and health system. For example, if the same vocabulary is used to describe the health system in South Africa and Kenya it will be easier for people in leadership and governance to adopt similar policies and strategies by learning from Kenya. Public health: The HIS collecting information on health and social determinants links to the work that was done in Public Health. Public Health addresses the health needs by identifying the social determinants in a community, which are identified through a process called a community diagnosis and thereafter addressed with interventions. According to Alberdi-Erice, Martinez and Rayón-Valpuesta (2021) “a community diagnosis is necessary to provide a detailed description of the community as well as an evaluation of the community’s health, including the main factors responsible for it and the needs felt by the population.”  The health workers in health system play an important part in ensuring that the correct interventions are put in place by the relevant partners and the government. The information they input into the health information system must be reliable, useable, authoritative, understandable, and comparative because it makes a significant contribution to the community diagnosis. Addressing Medicine Stock-outs which is a problem in some parts in South Africa can also be linked to public health, the interventions that follow community diagnosis. If a disease keeps increasing in a community, then the community noticeably need more health resources related to the disease to tackle the problem.

Through an article on Harvard Business School, I learned about my negotiation style in four different aspects, creating value, claiming it, empathizing with others, and asserting yourself, through a questionnaire. The questionnaire can be accessed here. The results of my negotiating style are that I create value and that i have a tendency to empathise with the people I'm negotiating with. Creating and claiming value: In negotiation, there is an inherent tension between creating value (expanding the pie so that there is more potential value to distribute) and claiming it (securing as big a share as possible, whether the pie is large or small). Here’s how you compare with other test takers on these two scales: There is nothing good or bad about where you stand. What’s important is making sure that your approach serves your broader objectives. A style that helps you in one situation can hurt you in another. For example, if most of your transactions are price-driven, then it’s fine to lean toward the value-claiming end of the spectrum. But that’s not where you want to be if you handle a lot of multi-issue deals (which usually have value-creating potential). Below, double check your responses to questions 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Look at the options you didn’t select, and experiment with one or two of them in your next negotiation. They may pay off for you. Alternatively, if your most important negotiations are with colleagues or long-time customers and vendors, it’s fine to lean toward value-creating — unless the bottom line is paramount. In that case, take a cue from value claimers. Don’t discard your entire approach, but try being a bit bolder in what you ask for. Empathizing with others and asserting yourself: Negotiators also have to balance the other side’s feelings with their own circumstances. Empathizing with others and asserting yourself shouldn’t be thought of as opposites. Success at one doesn't mean failure at the other. Nevertheless, research shows that many people wrongly feel they can't excel at both. The best negotiators avoid that trap. They advocate for themselves without disrespecting others. And they have concern for others without selling themselves short. Here’s how you compare with other test takers on both dimensions: Wherever you are on these scales, try to stretch yourself in both directions by being simultaneously more empathetic and more assertive. Review questions 1, 2, 4, and 9 below. Try one or two new moves in your next negotiation — and make sure to really do it. You’ll be doubly rewarded. Strengthening your interpersonal skills leads to better outcomes. My Responses to questions: Now let’s look at how you answered each question and consider how you might adapt your approach to meet different goals. 1. Your place or mine? Your answer: It makes no difference to me where I negotiate. Sometimes (in salary negotiations, for example) the venue isn’t even up for discussion. But conventional wisdom says that when you do have a choice, you want to meet on your own turf to maintain a power advantage. To a point, that can work. If you’re selling a product or a service, for instance, introducing customers or clients to the team who will be fulfilling the contract may seal the deal. But meeting at their office can show flexibility and a willingness to go the extra mile, which can be equally important if you are wooing a prospective customer or investor. You may even gain an edge by being at their place, because you’re likely to learn a lot more about who they are. And if you have a tense relationship, it’s easier to walk out of someone else’s office than to storm out of your own. 2. Outnumber the other side? Your answer: I feel at a disadvantage if the other side brings a larger team to the table. Yes, there can be strength in numbers, especially if different members of your negotiating team have special expertise or they all will play a role in implementation. Bringing an impressive team to the table can also signal your commitment to the deal. And for complex transactions, it’s helpful to have colleagues who can coach you during private caucuses. But with a larger team, you must have a clear plan for managing the process. And it’s essential to resolve any internal differences about the deal beforehand. You don’t want to invite the other side to play “divide and conquer.” Small, well-prepared teams are usually more agile, provided they have been given the discretion to craft creative solutions. In today’s fast-moving world, the ability to respond quickly to new proposals is a definite advantage at the bargaining table. 3. Make the first offer? Your answer: It usually doesn’t matter to me who makes the first offer. Street wisdom says never to make the first offer, because doing so signals weakness. Plus, the other side might surprise you by offering you a better deal than you would have asked for. But there can be good reasons for going first. Studies show that initial demands strongly influence counter-offers. Working from your number is advantageous if you can provide a plausible reason for what you put forth. In short, where you begin often affects where you end up. 4. Your approach in the beginning? Your answer: I state my position strongly early on but may become more flexible if my counterpart seems trustworthy. While you’re working out the substantive terms of a deal, you’re also implicitly negotiating how to negotiate. Will this interaction be an exercise in joint problem-solving, or will it be a hardball haggle? You can’t unilaterally decide that question. Whoever sits across the table is likely to have opinions about what the issues are and how to handle them. And people’s approaches to negotiation differ. Some are collaborative. Others are not. It’s always in your interest to elicit constructive behavior if you can. But doing so presents difficult choices. For instance, it’s unrealistic to expect other people to be more cooperative than you are — but being open and flexible may be misread as a sign of weakness. Before committing to one relational approach or another, try to get a good read on the other party. Even when you’re working under a deadline, take some time to establish a positive atmosphere. Don’t jump to conclusions about your counterpart. What looks like hostility might really be defensiveness (or simply a bad day for the other party). Once you both get settled, try making a small concession and see if it is reciprocated. If it is, then you’re most likely headed in the right direction. If not, you may need to express yourself more firmly. 5. Address easy or hard issues first? Your answer: I like to start with the hard issues, because others will be more willing to make concessions early on. There are good arguments for all these options. But keep two important caveats in mind: First, you may not know which issues are going to be hard and which will be easy until you sit down to negotiate. So be prepared for surprises, pleasant and otherwise. Second, don’t fall into the trap of dealing with one issue at a time. Doing so might seem orderly, but it basically sets up a series of win-lose transactions. It’s far better to evaluate different packages of items in the aggregate, in order to enable value-creating give-and-take. 6. Show your cards or hide them? Your answer: I usually give the other party a good sense of my priorities so that we can explore mutually beneficial trades. If only one party knows the other’s preferences, he or she can both expand the value “pie” and capture most of it. The party in the dark may be left only with crumbs. People understand this intuitively, which explains why many seemingly simple transactions are protracted. If no one reveals preferences, no one gets exploited. But potential value may be squandered, too. Taking the initiative to share information is usually wise, but do it carefully, step by step, to encourage reciprocity. 7. Start high or low? Your answer: I try to propose a deal that would be fair to both of us. Figuring out how much to ask for is like judging your driving speed as you hurry to a meeting. You probably can exceed the posted limit, but not by so much that you’re stopped by the police, given a ticket, and forced to reschedule your appointment. In negotiation, there are two kinds of upper limits. You hit one of them if your demand is taken seriously and the other party walks away. You may try to lure them back, though doing so will make them skeptical about whatever demands you make going forward. Here's the other upper limit: A bold offer may provoke an equally aggressive counteroffer. Perhaps both sides can back down by making concessions, inch by inch. But that kind of process can drive out value-creation. The punch line? Research suggests that the higher your aspirations, the more you’re likely to get. That’s the good news. The bad news is that you’ll also be more likely to walk away empty-handed. 8. Increase your demands? Your answer: I never do. This tactic is straight out of the hard-bargaining playbook. It’s supposed to have two advantages. One, of course, is getting a better outcome on that particular issue. The other is signaling that tomorrow’s terms will be even worse if agreement isn’t reached today. It’s a high-risk move, though, as it forces the other party to relinquish something that they believed they’d already secured. It undermines trust. Nevertheless, it’s sometimes appropriate. Let’s say that you’re negotiating a service contract and you’ve provisionally made certain concessions. If another provider subsequently offers more generous terms, you can reasonably ask the first candidate to match — or top — the competing bid. It’s also both fair and wise to increase your demands when you and the other party are comparing ways to craft a deal. For example, a price that you said you would accept to nail down a five-year contract might not be justifiable for a shorter-term deal. 9. Closing style: Do you say your manager wants more at the very end? Your answer: I rarely do that. This is the classic used-car gambit. You and the salesperson ostensibly shake hands on a deal. But after conferring with the manager, he or she comes back shamefaced and says that you’ll have to pay $1,000 more. The salesperson hastens to add, “But we’ll give you luxury floor mats for free” — as if that somehow makes everything all right. Be careful about using this technique, especially if you have ongoing relationships. People will quickly learn to leave themselves wiggle room, knowing that you’ll come back asking for more. Or worse, they’ll choose to do business with somebody who’s more straightforward.

Career goals and competencies are related not only because competencies are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviours that contribute to individual and organizational performance but because the journey of developing competencies grows a character within that is worthy of their career goal. Imagine the journey of acquiring competencies as ascending a challenging mountain. Each skill or knowledge area conquered represents a foothold, and the ultimate goal—the peak—symbolizes mastery. Just as climbers face obstacles, setbacks, and changing conditions, individuals with numerous competencies navigate diverse challenges on their path to success. Competencies are like puzzle pieces. Each one contributes to the overall picture of capability. Just as assembling a jigsaw puzzle requires patience, attention to detail, and the ability to see how individual pieces fit together, developing competencies involves integrating various skills and knowledge areas. Imagine a vast desert where competencies are like precious oases. Each competency acquired provides relief, sustenance, and a sense of achievement. Just as travellers in the desert seek out these life-giving oases, individuals with many competencies find fulfilment and nourishment in their diverse skill set. Competencies act as bridges connecting different domains. Just as a bridge spans a gap, competencies allow individuals to traverse from one area of expertise to another. Building a sturdy bridge requires planning, engineering, and craftsmanship—similar to how developing competencies involves deliberate effort and learning across disciplines. Picture a bountiful orchard where each competency is a ripe fruit waiting to be plucked. Just as farmers patiently tend to their crops, individuals cultivate their competencies over time. The sweetest rewards come from patiently nurturing and honing these abilities, leading to a rich harvest of success. These metaphors emphasize the value of the journey, persistence, and the interconnectedness of competencies. Through my competencies journey I will learn how to overcome challenges, integration of various skills and knowledge areas, find fulfilment and nourishment in adverse skill set, learn discipline and patience working towards success. These lessons along with developed competencies will help me reach my career goals. Find the metaphors used above here: